Gaudete!

The third Sunday in Advent is "Refreshment Sunday", also known as Gaudete Sunday, and this year it falls on 13th December. 

"The season of Advent originated as a fast of 40 days in preparation for Christmas, commencing on the day after the feast of Saint Martin (11 November), and was originally called Saint Martin's Lent, a name by which it was known as early as the fifth century. In the ninth century, the duration of Advent was reduced to four weeks (a period starting four Sundays before Christmas), and Advent preserved most of the characteristics of a penitential season, which made it a kind of counterpart to Lent. Gaudete Sunday is a counterpart to Laetare Sunday, and provides a similar break about midway through a season which is otherwise of a penitential character, and signifies the nearness of the Lord's coming." (Wikipedia) 

On Gaudete Sunday rose-coloured vestments may be worn instead of violet which is otherwise prescribed for every day in the season of Advent, and it is therefore also known as "Rose Sunday". Rose is the liturgical colour for joy. In churches that have an Advent wreath, the rose-coloured candle is lit in addition to two of the violet candles, which represent the first two Sundays of Advent. Despite the otherwise sombre readings of the season of Advent, which recognises the need for penitence in anticipation, the readings on the third Sunday emphasises the joyous anticipation of the Lord's coming.

An advent wreath with three purple candles and the rose coloured candle to represent joy.

Gaudete means “rejoice”. and it is a reminder that the Advent season is a season of joy because our salvation is already at hand. To have a Sunday of rejoicing in the midst of the traditional Advent fast is not simply a concession to human weakness. It serves to correct spiritual pride, reminding those who fast that the whole of the Christian life is a matter of grace. John the Baptist reminds us that salvation is a gift of grace, it is not bestowed on us in return for penitence. Joy is the experience of knowing that you are unconditionally loved, it requires no external conditions, unlike happiness. 

“Rejoice in the Lord always; again I say, rejoice. Indeed, the Lord is near.” Philippians 4:4-5

Advent is a time of watching, waiting and listening, remembering and anticipating, renewal and wonder. On Gaudete Sunday we should rejoice in the unconditional love of God, as we anticipate the fulfilment of his gift of love at Christmas.

SMLT Grand Christmas Tree Festival

You might have noticed "Viral Music" have been quieter than usual. There is an excellent reason why - because I have been busy producing the St Mary le Tower online Grand Christmas Tree Festival!

Each year at the start of Advent St. Mary le Tower hosts a week-long Festival where we invite our community - both the church community and that of the town - to come together to prepare for Advent and the Christmas season. Our Advent Vigil of Light and Hope is usually the weekend during the week-long event, although this year the lockdown makes this impossible. 

One of the benefits of an online festival is that we can reach a wider audience. During 2020 live-streaming of our choral services has seen our congregation grow to include regular members from across the globe. This blog has been a part of that. Do visit our Festival blog, and perhaps give us a shout out on social media!

The music below is "O thou the central orb" by Charles Wood; sung by our church choir and recorded on the CD "A New Song", a full service of Advent.

The online Festival will feature seven "posts" or articles which will go "live" on this site at regular times during the day as follows:- 

8am A Children's Activity (preceded on Day 1 by a Welcome from midnight) 

10am Christmas Tree of the Day! 

12 noon Article on Advent aimed at adults 

2pm Afternoon activity for adults and young people, including recipes, craft and puzzles 

4pm Christmas fun and community features 

6pm Prayer for the Nation 

8pm Feature on music at St. Mary le Tower and the wider church community. 

There really is something for everyone and plenty on music! I hope it will brighten these dark winter days in lockdown. Do share with anyone you know who might benefit.

Saint Cecilia / Benjamin Britten

Saint Cecilia (Latin Sancta Caecilia) is the patron of musicians and Church music. It is written that as the musicians played at her wedding, Cecilia "sang in her heart to the Lord". Musical compositions are dedicated to her, and her feast, on 22 November is the occasion of concerts and musical festivals.  

St. Cecilia, (also spelled as Cecily), is one of the most famous Roman martyrs of the early church and historically one of the most discussed. She did not need documented miracles for her to be canonised for two reasons; she was canonised long before the current process was in use (there is evidence of the Church considering her a saint from the 4th century, when the church dedicated to her name was founded in Rome) and because she was martyred. 

According to a late 5th-century legend, she was a noble Roman who, as a child, had vowed her virginity belonged to God. When she was married against her will to the future saint Valerian, then a pagan, she told him an angel of God wished her to remain a virgin. He promised to respect this wish if he were allowed to see the angel. She replied that he would if he were baptised, and on his return from baptism he found Cecilia talking to the angel. Cecilia then converted his brother Tiburtius, who also saw the angel. 

The martyrdom of Cecilia is said to have followed that of her husband Valerian and his brother at the hands of the prefect Turcius Almachius. Cecilia distributed her possessions to the poor, which enraged the prefect Almachius, who ordered her to be burned. When the flames did not harm her, legend says that after being struck three times on the neck with a sword, she lived for three days, and asked the pope to convert her home into a church. Cecilia was buried in the catacomb of St. Callistus, near Rome. 

At the beginning of the 9th century, Pope Paschal I discovered her incorrupt relics in the catacomb of St. Praetextatus and had them moved to Rome, to a basilica in Trastevere that now bears her name. According to reports from the two occasions her body was moved (the 9th and 16th centuries), she looked like she was simply sleeping; her body was entirely incorrupt after 1500 years. 

Cecilia became the patron saint of musicians and music; in art she is often represented playing the organ. 

St. Cecilia, patron saint of music

Benjamin Britten

Hymn to St Cecilia, Op. 27 is a choral piece by Benjamin Britten (1913–1976), a setting of a poem by W. H. Auden written between 1940 and 1942. 

Born on St. Cecilia's day, Britten wanted to write a piece dedicated to St Cecilia for a long time. In addition to her patronage of music and musicians, there is a long tradition in England of writing odes and songs to St Cecilia. The most famous of these are by John Dryden ("A song for St. Cecilia's Day" 1687) and musical works by Henry Purcell, Hubert Parry, E. Florence Whitlock, and George Frideric Handel. Another briefer work by Herbert Howells has the similar title A Hymn for St Cecilia, but was written later in 1960. (Wikipedia)

The first known reference to Britten's desire to write such a work is from 1935 was when Britten wrote in his diary "I’m having great difficulty in finding Latin words for a proposed Hymn to St Cecilia. Spend morning hunting." The Hymn was actually composed in America, for performance in New York in 1941. However in the midst of World War II Britten and his partner Peter Pears decided to return home to England in 1942 and the composition was confiscated by customs, and rewritten on board the ship MS Axel Johnson, along with "A Ceremony of Carols".

Herbert Howells

Born on this day in 1892, Herbert Howells is something of a legend in the world of cathedral music today. However the majority of his most famous works were written after the Second World War, at a time when he shied away from self-promotion and his contemporaries perhaps rated him more for his teaching abilities. 

Herbert Norman Howells CH CBE was an English composer, organist, and teacher, most famous for his large output of Anglican church music. The son of a bankrupt builder, with the community shame that carried leaving a deep mark on twelve year old Howells. The fear of penury was never far away in his mind and indeed he had to give up his job as sub-organist at Salisbury Cathedral after illness in 1917. This fear may have precipitated his desire to excel at teaching, rather than promote himself as a creative artist. Teaching paid the bills, he had precious little time for composition. 

Howells was the youngest of six children with little hope of a formal education, yet his musical talent was recognised and nurtured by a member of the family of Charles Bathurst, 1st Viscount Bledisloe who had taken an interest in the budding musician. Howells began music lessons in 1905 with Herbert Brewer, the organist of Gloucester Cathedral, and at sixteen became his articled pupil at the Cathedral alongside Ivor Novello and Ivor Gurney. Howells turned out to be a musical genius; he went on to win a scholarship to study with Parry, Stanford and Wood at the Royal College of Music and picked up most of the RCM's’s glittering prizes along the way. By the 1920s he was seen as a promising young composer of chamber music, orchestral works and songs, of whom great things were expected. Tragically his son Michael tragically died of polio in 1935 and he never got over this loss. 

Andrea and Giovanni Gabrieli

Andrea Gabrieli (1532/1533 – August 30, 1585) was an Italian composer and organist of the late Renaissance. His nephew was the better known Giovanni Gabrieli, (c. 1554/1557 – 12 August 1612) also a composer and organist. Both were members of the Venetian School, the name given to Italian composers of the later Renaissance working in Venice from about 1550 to around 1610 and used as a collective term for their work.

Andrea Gabrieli

Venetian School

The rise of Venice as a musical centre was in part political. After the death of Pope Leo X in 1521 and the Sack of Rome in 1527, many musicians either moved elsewhere or chose not to go to Rome, and Venice was one of several places to have a creative environment and the existence of St Mark's Basilica in Venice also attracted many composers. The unique interior of the basilica with opposing choir lofts and spacious architecture required a compositional style which exploited sound delay; so the Venetian polychoral style was developed. This grand antiphonal style, in which groups of singers and instruments played sometimes in opposition, sometimes together united by the sound of the organ was the hallmark of the Venetian School's composers of sacred music.

Michaelmas - the Feast of St Michael and All Angels

Today, 29th September, is Michaelmas, the Feast Day of St Michael and All Angels. Michael, Gabriel and Raphael are the three named biblical angels, depicted as the beloved messengers of God. 

Michael is an archangel in the religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. To Catholics, Eastern Orthodox Christians, Anglicans, and Lutherans he is called "Saint Michael the Archangel and Saint Michael". In other Protestant churches, he is referred to as Archangel Michael. The name Michael means 'who is like God?'., he is described as the protector of Israel and leader of the armies of God against Satan. Michael is perhaps best known for his victory over the dragon, which is told in the Revelation to John. 

"And there was war in heaven: Michael and his angels fought against the dragon; and the dragon fought and his angels, and prevailed not; neither was their place found any more in heaven" (Rev. 12:7). 

As recounted by the Revelation of Saint John, at the end of the world war will break at between Heaven and Hell, between good and evil. As the commander of the Army of God, Archangel Michael leads the other angels in the fight against evil, represented in this picture by a seven-headed dragon. Each of the dragon's heads represents one of the seven deadly sins. Michael is therefore regarded as the protector of Christians from the devil, particularly those at the hour of death. Sanctuaries to Michael were built by Christians in the 4th century, when he was first seen as a healing angel.

We are all familiar with Gabriel's role in Luke's Gospel. Gabriel (meaning 'the strength of God') is the one who is sent by God to Mary to announce the birth of Christ. Raphael (meaning 'the healing of God') is depicted in the Book of Tobit as the one who restores sight to Tobit's eyes. 

Festival of Mary - our Patronal Festival

Late summer is the time of two church Festivals which celebrate Mary, the Mother of God.  

August 15th is the day in which the Roman Catholic Church has the solemnity of the Assumption and the Orthodox Church marks the Dormition. In the Anglican faith the Assumption is sometimes celebrated, or more simply it is a celebration of the Blessed Virgin Mary. This celebration is often delayed until September, mainly for practical reasons since congregations and choirs are often absent on holiday in August, and is then merged with the 8th September when the church traditionally marks the birth of Mary.

Francisco Guerrero - Duo Seraphim

Francisco Guerrero was born in 1528 in Seville, possibly in October. He was Spanish Catholic Priest and composer of the Renaissance. His older brother Pedro was also musical and they received their musical education together, although Francisco's talents soon eclipsed those of his brother. At the tender age of 17 he was appointed Master of Singing at Jaén Cathedral, later accepting a position in Seville in his early twenties. By the age of thirty his reputation was exceptional, he was highly sought after as a composer and singer and had published collections of his compositions at home and abroad.

Guerrero worked for several decades in Spain and Portugal, before travelling to Italy in 1581 where he published two further books of music. After returning to Spain for a few years, he next travelled to the Holy Land, only to be attacked by pirates! Nearly killed and robbed of all his money he returned to Spain penniless until Seville cathedral rescued him and re-employed him. Guerrero published a book of his experiences which met huge success and even planned a return to the Holy Land, but died of the plague in 1599.

Guerrero's unusually wrote both sacred and secular music, unlike his contemporaries Morales and Victoria. Interestingly he anticipated functional harmonic usage in his compositions, which have remained popular for centuries.

Duo Seraphim
This seems to have been the composer’s only piece (surviving complete) for twelve voices in three choirs.

"Guerrero had it printed twice, first in 1589 and again in his final collection (1597). Two lone high voices begin; at ‘Tres sunt’ three voices are exposed on their own. At ‘Plena est omnis terra …’ the grand tutti join in massive chords. The Trinitarian symbolism of the three choirs is obvious,  choral and instrumental groups enhance the separation of the three choirs and their dramatic potential." from notes by Bruno Turner © 1999

Our choral scholars recorded this beautiful motet during lockdown, one voice per part. It's a wonderful achievement and a fitting end to our current cycle of recordings. Next week we are back singing in church!

Duo seraphim clamabant alter ad alterum: 

Sanctus Dominus Deus Saboath. 

Plena est omnis terra gloria ejus. (Isaiah 6:3) 

 Tres sunt, qui testimonium dant in coelo: 

Pater, Verbum et Spiritus Sanctus: 

et hi tres unum sunt. 

Sanctus Dominus Deus Sabaoth. 

Plena est omnis terra gloria ejus.

Isaiah 6:2-3; 1 John 5:7

You can download a copy of the score from choral wiki here under their copyright license.

Richard Ayleward, a harmonic link between Tudor and Restoration music.

Born in 1626, Richard Ayleward was the son of a minor canon at Winchester Cathedral, also called Richard. Ayleward sang as a chorister in the Winchester cathedral choir under the director of music Christopher Gibbons, son of Orlando Gibbons. Ayleward must have paid attention, or received a significant amount of tuition since his handwriting style for text and music is almost identical to Gibbons! During the English Restoration, Ayleward was organist and choirmaster of Norwich Cathedral from 1661-1664, and again from 1666-1669. It's not clear why Ayleward gave up his post temporarily in 1664 but he was reappointed in 1665 and remained until his death in 1669.

During the Civil War Interregnum Ayleward must have privately composed many choral pieces, since after the Restoration he was able to quickly produce twenty highly original anthems, one written for the Coronation of Charles II. Ayleward seems to have had distinct Royalist sympathies, and possible connections to the Royal Court, which would have not made him a popular figure during the Interregnum and hence suggests a possible reason for composing privately until the Restoration.

And that was as much as I could discover about this Restoration composer whose Preces and Responses I have sung with our choir for some years.

However Dr. Hugo Janacek, a member of a Facebook Choral Evensong group, piqued my interest recently when he shared some research of his. Janacek researches East Anglian choral music, and has used a complete set of 17th century partbooks written in Ayleward’s hand and signed by him. All the manuscripts of Ayleward's compositions were owned by Norwich Cathedral, purchased by A. H. Mann in the nineteenth century and published.  However whilst Mann deserves much credit for preserving Ayleward's work, he seems to be the source of some confusion around Ayleward's dates, writing in 1886 that Ayleward's birth year was 1626, later admitting he was without proof. As part of his research, Janacek ha in fact uncovered a good candidate for Ayleward’s baptism record, which suggests he was in fact baptised in April 1625 in a village close to Winchester.

The surviving choral music consists of 20 verse anthems, 2 verse settings of the evening canticles (the Magnificat and Nunc Dimittis) and the Short Service, which contains settings of music for the whole daily office. it is his Short Service which is best known. His responses, with which I was already familiar, are from this Service.

Why you cannot put a price on our Cathedral Choirs

You may well have read Benedict King's letter to the Times today, in which he disparagingly dismissed England's choral tradition as "insanely expensive" and a superfluous part of the Church of England, evidence of our departure from a clear focus on faith and more specifically the cause of the financial crisis facing our churches. He couldn't be more wrong.

The quire at Ely Cathedral

King may well be "History and Economics Editor" at Five Books,  but he seems to have fallen foul of the fundamental truth of economics. Namely that the price of something is a very poor indicator of its worth.

Music is such a fundamental part of worship in our churches. It allows the congregation to participate, invites people to pray and settles their mind ready for worship. Music can give words meaning, preparing the congregation for each stage of the service, conferring a sense of inclusivity and enhancing scripture. Just as children are often taught important information via song, music aids memory and connects with the soul. It is comforting, reassuring, and heightens our emotional involvement in worship. It is also a fundamental expression of joy and as such should be the foundation for praising God!

A good example of music reinforcing scripture is Thomas Weelkes "Hosanna to the Son of David". Hosanna to the Son of David is a famous example of the English 'full' anthem – as opposed to the 'verse' anthem, and opens with a majestic six-voice proclamation. It's glorious thick texture shows how effectively music can conjure up an image, it's a joy to sing! The anthem facilitates the visualisation of the scripture, and actually gives the text meaning in a modern world far removed from biblical times. Words alone simply cannot achieve this.

Celebrations have involved music since time immemorial, and Anglican choral music is inseparable from both the Church of England and our Monarchy. Unless King is in favour of a programme of disestablishment and abolition, advocating the survival of our cathedrals and churches at the expense of their music is profoundly impossible. (Our cathedrals were actually *built* for choirs with their wonderful acoustics!)

Westminster Abbey, where I was fortunate enough to sing Evensong in December

King's reference to Cranmer is also interesting, but as an historian I can assure him music has stood the test of time as a vehicle for communication, emotional connection and teaching. The congregation are not spectators, but participants. I wrote at length here about the impact of the English Reformation on music and whilst Cranmer's reform of the church in England strayed from the Lutheran model, he was a supporter of the Protestant movement in Europe. It's also worth pointing out that Cranmer's motives were mercenary as much as they were religious. And whilst Protestantism is indeed associated with plainer worship, Luther had significant appreciation for music. Not only did he like and enjoy music, (he was a rather accomplished musician himself) he deliberately included music as part of the church service as a means for worship. He believed strongly in the ethical power of music and that through it one could glorify God and grow closer to Him. Music survived as an essential and integral part of Protestant worship as a means of glorifying God and connecting with him. Calvin was deeply concerned for the piety and religious devotion of parishioners, but considered that children could "teach adults simplicity, childlike devotion, and a sincere heart when singing, even though there might be problems with intonation and the like." He was responsible for adding children's choirs to worship music.

As a chorister parent and former teacher I can perhaps reassure King that the musical education offered in cathedral schools and cathedral style choirs is, in fact, inexpensive and of enormous value to society. Places are earned by ability and potential, not social position or income and they provide children who often have little access to a musical education with unparalleled opportunity. Our choirs are a main source of Mission within the Church of England, at a time when many congregations are dwindling and the average age in the pews is increasing. It's also worth noting that even the best music directors earn significantly less than senior teachers in our schools yet in opening the window to classical choral music they promote skills and enthusiasm which stretch far beyond the individual and benefit whole communities. Cathedral choirs promote more than a tradition; they teach history, which gives the present context, train the mind and bring significant mental health benefits. For many, the chorister experience will enrich their lives for many years to come; for some it will be the foundation for a career in professional music.

If this year has taught us anything as a society, it has shown that our value system is profoundly skewed. Our mental health has been damaged by fear and loneliness, no amount of money or privilege can protect us against the virus and supporting retail and business hasn't made us any happier. What people really need, and are crucially missing, is music. Because it's so fundamentally essential for the soul.

And *that* is what is at the foundation of faith; the connection between the soul and our Maker. Prayer may be that connection, but it is the accompanying music which gives it wings.

Music for Lammastide

History
The name Lammas Day comes from the Anglo-Saxon hlaf-mas, meaning "loaf-mass". It is a Christian holiday celebrated on August 1st in the Northern Hemisphere, and February 1st in the Southern Hemisphere, also known as Loaf Mass day due to the tradition of making a loaf from the first wheat harvest and bringing it to the church to bless of the "first fruits" of the harvest. A similar religious offering of the first agricultural produce of the harvest was present in classical Greek, Roman and Hebrew religions. In Judaism it corresponds with the Hebrew Festival of Unleavened Bread in April when a sheaf from the barley harvest was offered, followed by the Festival of Weeks in May when the first wheat harvest was offered up; both as an act of thankfulness for bringing the Israelites into the Promised Land. (Deuteronomy 16; 10-16).

In the Bible, Jesus' resurrection was referred to as "First Fruits" in Corinthians 1:-

"But now Christ has been raised from the dead, the first fruits of those who are asleep."

In the Middle Ages the idea of offering the first fruits was adapted by the Christian church. This was called a tithe and was basically a tax to support the local clergy and church demesne. In England, every tenth egg, sheaf of wheat, lamb, chicken, and all other animals were given to the church as a tithe, farm products were expected to be donated throughout the year and not only on Lammas Day.

Photo by James Coleman on Unsplash

Ralph Vaughan Williams

I gained first awareness of the composer Vaughan Williams as a child. Aged 9, (in what would now be school Year 5) I was chosen to sing the opening verse of "Linden Lea" to open a whole school concert. Bearing in mind this was a school which went from ages 3-18, and could summon a large audience of parents and governors, I should have been somewhat daunted at the prospect. (I certainly would be now.) But children either possess an uncanny self confidence or are completely oblivious of occasion,  which keep nerves completely at bay and I don't remember being remotely nervous. I knew the song and enjoyed singing - so what was the problem?! (I do however remember wondering how the composer's name was pronounced and being rather grateful I was not called upon to read any introduction!)

Biography
Born 12 October 1872 Ralph Vaughan Williams was an English composer whose works include operas, ballets, chamber music, secular and religious vocal pieces and orchestral compositions written over sixty years. Strongly influenced by Tudor music and English folk-song, his work marked a "clear break in British music from its German-dominated style of the 19th century." (Wikipedia)

A student at Charterhouse, he entered the Royal College of Music rather than completing his education, briefly transferring to Trinity College, Cambridge to study music. Vaughan Williams' first composition teacher at the RCM was Hubert Parry, whom he idolised. In his "Musical Autobiography" of 1950 Vaughan Williams describes a quote from Parry which gives perspective to his choral work.

Parry once said to me: "Write choral music as befits an Englishman and a democrat". We pupils of Parry have, if we have been wise, inherited from him the great English choral tradition, which Tallis passed on to Byrd, Byrd to Gibbons, Gibbons to Purcell, Purcell to Battishill and Greene, and they in their turn through the Wesleys, to Parry. He has passed on the torch to us and it is our duty to keep it alight."

At Cambridge Vaughan Williams studied composition with Charles Wood, and after graduating in 1894 he returned to the RCM to find Charles Villiers Stanford as his new professor of composition. Once a maverick who blazed a trail, Stanford had become musically deeply conservative and the two clashed frequently, although it's acknowledged Stanford held Vaughan Williams in deep affection, recognising his talent. Vaughan Williams became a friend and fellow critic of Gustav Holst, a fellow student who became a lifelong friend.

Initially Vaughan Williams focussed on collecting folk songs, building on his passion for Tudor music and tight modal style. His mature style developed as he produced choral music, orchestral works and chamber music. Born into a family with a strong morality and progressive social outlook his aim was to make music accessible, rather than focus on the ornate and challenging.

Despite being forty one in 1914 Vaughan Williams volunteered for active service in the Great War, and stopped composing during the war years. Older than most the war took a huge emotional toll on him and contributed to deafness which he suffered in later years. By 1936 the shadow of war was looming again and he was compelled to write Dona nobis pacem as a plea for peace.

He died suddenly, (in rude health despite reaching the age of 85) on 26th August 1958. His ashes were interred near the burial plots of Purcell and Stanford in the north choir aisle of Westminster Abbey.

Music
At the turn of the century Vaughan Williams was among the first to travel into the countryside to collect folk songs and carols from singers, preserving them for future generations to enjoy. As musical editor of The English Hymnal he composed several hymn tunes that remain popular (including Sine Nomine, “For all the Saints” and Down Ampney, “Come down O love Divine”). But is perhaps as a composer of symphonies that he is best known. Although Vaughan Williams did not complete the first of them until he was thirty-eight years old, the nine symphonies span nearly half a century of his creative life.

Focus on Plainchant

With churches reopening for services many of us are looking to experience services via personal attendance rather than via streaming services such as Facebook. However, don't expect services near you to return to normal any time soon, and there will, sadly, be absolutely no choral or congregational singing for the foreseeable. Thus the best option currently is for an organist, priest and cantor to be present (the latter two roles may obviously be combined) with a focus on plainchant.

Plainchant, or plainsong is a type of early church music consisting of a single line (monophonic) of unaccompanied vocal melody in free rhythm, with no regular bar lengths. It has been present in Christian worship since its earliest days, possibly influenced by Judaism and certainly by the Greek modal system. It was initially the only type of music allowed in the Christian church. It was believed that music should make the listener receptive to spiritual thoughts and reflections, to achieve this the melody was kept pure, repetitive and unaccompanied.

Plainchant is usually either responsorial (where the cantor/soloist sings a series of verses, each one with a response from the congregation) or antiphonal (verses are sung alternately by soloist and choir, or choir and congregation). For now, I suspect most churches will adopt a cantor only approach. A key feature in plain chant is the use of the same melody for various texts. This is similar to ordinary psalms in which the same formula (the "psalm tone") is used for all the verses of a psalm, just as in a hymn or a folk song the same melody is used for the various verses.